Bibliography & Biology Outline of Galinsoga spp.
Prepared
by: David Kagima,
April 2000
Galinsoga
spp.
Asteraceae
- Sunflower
Family
(G.parviflora,
G. ciliata, G. quadriradiata)
Common
names - Gallant soldier (E), Shaggy soldier (E), Quick
weed (E), Water weed (E), Macdonaldi (E), Kang’ei (Kikuyu), Msekeseke
(Kiswahili).
Biology Outline
Introduction
(Distribution
and Habitat)
Galisoga
is an annual herb found in most temperate and subtropical
regions of the world as a weed of many crops and waste land. In Africa, its
distribution is wide spread, ranging from 0-2000m above sea level (Terry &
Michieka 1987). It is known to have been growing in the Bartram botanical
garden in Philadelphia in 1836, and the earliest recorded naturalized
populations in the US were not far from Philadelphia, in Baltimore, eastern
Pennsylvania, and New York, suggesting that it may have escaped from there
(Shontz and Shontz 1970). In Nebraska (US), it is scattered throughout and it
is most common in the eastern one-half in shady and wet areas of fields,
gardens, farm yards, waste places and lawns (Stubbendieck et al. 1995). As the
map below shows, the species is now present in all parts of New England (US).
The weed is native to Central and South America, but due to human activity has
spread far from its original range to become “a cosmopolitan weed” (Gleasen
& Cronquist 1991). Galinsoga has
names related with speed and violence! Gallant soldier, Quick weed, Water weed,
Msekeseke (a kiswahili word that means ‘fast’), Kang’ei (a Kikuyu word that
means ‘one who hacks/chops off heads’). And in Ohio (US), like “water”, it
spreads everywhere. These names clearly indicate that the weed is difficult to
manage.
Click on map to view
MAP!
1)
Seed
1.1) Seed Production
Galinsoga
has a fruit that is an achene, angled or flat , black slightly
hairy and about 1.5mm long. Propagation is by seed (Terry and Michieka 1987).
Seeds are enclosed in an achene and are
small, measuring 1.5mm long (Stubbendieck et al. 1995). A plant 8-9 weeks old
can produce 3000 flower heads and over 7000 viable seeds. Galinsoga can produce
as much as 125 million seeds per acre (Rutgers Coop Ext. 1999). Usami (1976)
working in Japan estimated that one plant of G. parviflora in its life-time produces a total of 400,000 seeds.
1.2) Dispersion
The plant may be spread about by several means.
The small, lightweight seeds (technically fruits) can be blown short distances
by the wind, and are covered with short stiff hairs which help them cling to
the fur of animals or the clothing of humans. They can also be transported in soil.
Early records of the species in the US were concentrated in and around cities,
while for a time the plant remained relatively rare in rural areas, suggesting
that long distance dispersal was accomplished mostly through the activities of
humans, as an inadvertent consequence of travel and commerce (Shontz and Shontz 1970).
Galinsoga can spread one mile in 10 years and
became naturalized in England 150 years after introduction into the Kew
Botanical Garden (Rutgers Coop Ext. 1999).
1.3)
Seed Dormancy & Beed Bank
Seeds are not dormant and can germinate
immediately upon contact with warm moist soil. Temperatures of 50-90 degrees F
are best for germination. Galinsoga is called gallant soldier and quick weed
because seeds start to germinate on their way to the ground so that several
generations are possible each growing season (Rutgers Coop Ext. 1999).
As its seeds lack dormancy (Ivany and Sweet
1973), seedling recruitment takes place whenever temperature and moisture
conditions become favorable (Usami 1976). The weed maintains itself by seed
which over-winters on or under the surface of the soil (Warwick and Sweet
1983). Sown on the soil surface and grown in natural light, 73% germination was
reported after 1 week and 86% germination after 7 weeks (Warwick 1983). Ivany
and Sweet 1973 observed that seedling
emergence for G. parviflora occurred
in May and June. Ivany (1971) examined the effect of soil depth and found that
emergence decreased from 98% for seed sown on soil surface to 56% at 0.25 cm,
with no germination for seed buried at a depth of 1.0 cm. Studies by Kahl and
Ashley (1977) indicated a very positive germination response to light in G. quadriradiata. In the light the
germination range was 94-98% compared to
1-15%
germination in the dark.
2) Development
2.1) Architecture, size & phenalogic stage
Galinsoga is a forb and an
abundant seed-producing summer annual with hairy leaves and stems. At seedling
stage, it produces club-shaped cotyledons with slightly indented tip. The stem below
the cotyledon ( hypocotyl) is very short, green, becoming maroon with age.
Young leaves are opposite, triangular with slightly toothed margins, and
covered with hairs. It has a shallow fibrous root system. The stem is erect,
branched, grows up to 60cm high and is slightly hairy. Leaves are opposite, up
to 6cm long and 4cm wide, simple, ovate and slightly hairy. Three distinct
veins mark the leaf, converging at the base and the margin is shallowly
toothed. The inflorescence is flower heads 5-8mm in diameter on stalks 12-25mm
long. The leafy inflorescence is regularly branched at the stem apex and from
upper leaf axils. Flower heads consist of many yellow tubular florets, and 4-5
white 3-lobed ray florets sorrounded by membranous bracts. Fruit is an achene
and propagation is by seed (Terry and Michieka 1987).
PICTURES!
seedlings showing cotyledons
leaves opposite oval to triangular
stems erect reaching 2ft high
fruit a brown to black achene
many flowers produced from terminal stems
3) Interspecific Interaction
3.1) Competition
Galinsoga
is highly competitive and quickly spreads and becomes
dominant in a field (Univ. of Conn. Ext. 2000). A study by Rai and Tripathi
(1984) indicated that at higher altitude, G.
ciliata was more successful as indicated by its higher population density,
longer life of its first and second cohorts and greater biomass production in
crop fields. Seedling recruitment and survivorship of cohorts were
significantly influenced by mode of cultivation, crop type and altitude. The
growth of the weed was affected by altitude and crop type as indicated by its
poor performance in radish field at lower altitude than at higher altitude (Rai
and Tripathi 1984).
Due to their susceptibility to competition,
these weeds are rarely present in established grasslands or other dense crop
stands (Babu 1969). Reduction in yield of vegetables from competition depends
on crop, with little or no losses with competitive crops. Studies in
Connecticut and New York by Ashley (1972), and Senesac and Minotti (1979),
respectively reported losses of 50% in yield of snap beans. Stilwell and Sweet
(19750 reported 10% reduction in yield of cabbage. Vine growth of tomato was
reduced by 23% in plots heavily infested with Galinsoga (Warwick and Sweet
1983).
3.2)
Predators and Parasites
Galinsoga
serve as alternate host for many insects, viruses and
nematodes which affect crop species (Warwick and Sweet 1983) .The weed takes
hold like a wild fire. It grows among lower growing crops and can transmit
mosaic virus to them. Galinsoga Mosaic virus was first reported in Galinsoga parviflora from Queensland,
Australia, where it spreads (Behncken 1970). Virions are found in all parts of
the host plant in the cytoplasm. Inclusions and multivesicular bodies are
present in infected cells. Chlorotic or necrotic local lesions, systemic mosaic
and leaf malformation are common symptoms in Galinsoga parviflora. The virus is transmitted without a vector
through soil (mechanical innoculation). It is neither transmitted by contact
between plants nor by seed. It spreads to susceptible crop families such as
Amaranthaceae, Chenopodaceae, Compositae, Leguminasae, solanaceae and
umbelliferae (Behncken 1970).
Galinsoga parviflora is a resorvoir for wilt virus that attacks
tomatoes and for cucumber mosaic virus, curly top virus and aster yellow yellow
viruses all of which infect many crops species (Batra 1979). Studies by Batra
(1979) showed that Galinsoga harbored 122 species of insects and one mite as
either phytophages or pollinators and 22 species of insect pests of crops in
maryland and Guatemala. The galinsogas also serve as hasts for a number of
nematodes species which affect crops. These include the northern root.knot
nematode, chitwood, bulb nematode, root nematodes and sugarbeet eelworm
(Bendixen et al 1979)
4) Intraspecific Interaction
In a
given sowing pattern, seed germination of both galinsoga parviflora and G.
ciliata declined with increase in sowing density. Density-induced reduction
in seed output was observed at high densities. Galinsoga ciliata could tolerate greater density stress than G. parviflora. The effect of various
physical factors was exaggerated at high population densities which showed that
the severity of intraspecific competition coupled with environmental
constraints operating at different stages of the life cycle contributes a great
deal to the population regulation of these weeds (Rai and Tripathi 1983).
5) Reproduction
5.1) Flowering, growth and development
The biology or life cycle of Galinsoga makes it
a successful weed. The plant can complete its life cycle (produce seeds) in as
little as 50 days. The weed begins to produce flowers as early as the sixth or
seventh node. Each flower head contains an average of 24 viable seeds.
Galinsoga continues to flower throughout summer until frost. It is a
significant problem because of its continuous flower habit, ability to
germinate late in the season avoiding late cultivation, the great number of
viable seeds produced and lack of dormancy (Rutgers Coop Ext. 1999). Within a
given crop cycle, several cohorts of seedling emerge at different time
intervals (Rai and Tripathi 1984). Studies by Ivany and Sweet (1973) indicated
that both species of galinsoga had large increases in plant height and weight
with longer photoperiod (16-h). Both Galinsoga parviflora and
G. quadriradiata produce by cross- and
self-fertilization (Canne 1977). Ivany (1971) and Usami (1976) have described
three to four generations per growing season in populations from New York state
and Japan, respectively.
5.2)
Genetic variation
One case of suspected intergeneric hybridization
involving Galinsoga quadriradiata
(n = 16) and Sabazia
sarmentosa Less. Var. Sarmentosa
(n = 24) has been described from Mexico by canne (1977). Putative hybrids are
morphologically intermediate and apparently sterile. Gopinathan and Babu (1982)
have described a triploid hybrid (3n = 24) between G. parviflora ( 2n = 16)
and G. quadriradiata (2n = 32) from an area of India where the two species
co-occur. The hybrid was characterized by 0% pollen viability and the presence
of morphological featrues of both species.
6)
Weed Management
6.1)Chemical
Galinsoga
is best controlled when in early bloom to prevent seed
production. It is an annual weed that is a perennial problem for many growers.
The weed can produce great number of viable seeds, lacks seed dormancy and
shoots cut during hoeing or cultivation can root rapidly even in semi-moist
soils. Herbicides that provide good control are Tillam, Atrazine, Goal, Karmex,
lasso, Lorox, Sencor, Lexone, Gramoxone, Lentagran, Bladex, Dual and Command
(Rutgers Coop Ext. 1999). Other chemicals include alachlor, cyanazine, dynoseb,
linulon, metolachlor and paraquat (Romanowski and Fulmer 1974; Ivany 1976;
Mc-Laughlin and Sweet 1974; Mohammed and Sweet 1974, 1976; Hartfield et al.
1978; Hughes and Sweet 1978).
6.2)
Non-chemical
It is advised that if you do not have Galinsoga, prevent it! In Connecticut, it is invading farms on which it has not
been previously seen. Fields are scouted in early June, especially edges. If
seen, vegetable growers, particularly in the Connecticut River Valley are
advised to use hand hoeing or other measures to eliminate it. Crop rotation is
also encouraged. The weed is a problem in cole crops, peppers and squashes.
Rotation with corn and tomatoes is good in which herbicides are available to
give good weed control. also these crops have enough height to them to
discourage the weed. To avoid spreading it, equipment must be cleaned after
working in infected fields. Eradication is another weed management program for
highly infested fields. A summer cover crop of Sudan grass and sorghum can be
used to suppress the weed. Galinsoga seeds are relatively short-lived in the soil,
and so if plants are prevented from going to seed for several years, this nasty
weed could be greatly reduced in numbers if not eliminated. Repeated discing of
the field ensures that it stays weed free all season (Univ. of Conn. Ext.
2000). Black plastic mulch is a good control in intensive agriculture
production or in home horticulture (Sweet 1978).
7)
Usage and properties
The young stems and leaves of quickweed can be
cooked and eaten as greens. The weed is none poisoning (Stubbendieck et al.
1995). In Java, the leaves of the two species are eaten by humans (Batra 1979).
8) Other topics
Soil texture and soil moisture play a role in
regulating population growth in Galinsoga. A study by Rai and Tripathi 1983 showed
that an increased proportion of sand in soil resulted in higher seed
production. Also, a substantial
decrease in seeds and dry matter was observed at low moisture level. Sudies
conducted by Ivany (1971) showed that Galinsoga
spp. prefer high levels of N, P and K.
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Usage and properties
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9) Other Topics
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