Panicum spp. Taxa
Panicum spp. Taxa
-Panicum
spp. Bibliography (1991)
-Panicum spp. Outline & Bibliography (1998)
a. fall panicum (Panicum dichotomiflorum)
b. wild proso millet (P. miliaceum)
c. witchgrass (P. capillare)
d. taxa: complex of associated species or demography
Prepared by: Lowell Sandell, April 1998
Outline for Panicum Species
Lowell Sandell
Agronomy 517: Weed Biology and Ecology
Spring 1998
4/16/98
** The main species involved while researching for Panicum species:
- Wild-Proso Millet ( Panicum milaceum )
- Fall Panicum ( Panicum dichotomiflorum )
- Witchgrass ( Panicum capillare )
I included these species together to make a more extensive and complete search for information. These three species are very similar in a great number of aspects such as lifecycle, growth habit, and the crops they are a problem in.
Description of Panicum Species
- Wild-Proso Millet (broomcorn millet, wild millet) – Panicum milaceum
- Fall Panicum – Panicum dichotomiflorum
- Witchgrass (ticklegrass, panicgrass, tumbleweed grass) – Panicum capillar
Origin and History
- Proso Millet was an extensively cultivated crop in ancient time, it is much less prevalent today
- Fall Panicum and Witchgrass are native species to North America
- Wild-Proso Millet is an escaped biotype of cultivated Millet crop of Europe, Asia, and Africa
- Became a serious weed problem in 1970
- Adapted to less fertile soils and growing conditions
- Tolerates hot temperatures and low rainfall
- Require a shorter growing season
- Proso Millet crop species
- Switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum )
- Texas Panicum ( Panicum texanum )
- Woolly Cupgrass
- Prairie Cupgrass
- Crabgrass
- Annual, warm season grass
- Height – 0.1 to 0.7 m (wild-proso millet can grow to 2 m)
- Spreading and open panicle ( 10 – 40 cm )
- Long hairs on sheath or blade (except Fall Panicum )
- Ligule is truncate with hairs
- Culm is upright or erect and terete to slightly flattened
- Can produce over 20,000 seeds per plant
- Seeds and very small and can be different colors
Geographical Distribution and Habitat
A. USA
- Wisconsin
- Minnesota
- Iowa
- Illinois
- North Dakota
- South Dakota
- Nebraska
- Colorado
- Wyoming
- Idaho
- Washington
- Utah
B. World
- Canada
a. Manitoba
b. Ontario
c. Quebec
- Asia
- China
- Japan
- Russia
- Europe
- Africa
C. Habitat
- These plants do very well in cultivated agricultural fields
- Panicum species colonize waste areas very quickly
- Roadsides are common habitats
- Abused and poorly maintained pasture land
- Gardens
Biology
A. Lifecycle
- Summer annual species
- It is a relatively late emerging species compared to other weeds
- Can complete its lifecycle in a very short period of time ( 60 - 90 days)
- Reproduces from seeds
- Warm season grass
- There are many biotypes creating a large amount of diversity
- Panicum species can tiller profusely
- Root systems are shallow and adventitious
B. Germination
- Seedlings are vigorous and grow quickly
- Seedling can emerge from depths of 5 cm
C. Emergence
- Panicum species are late emerging weeds
- The late emergence is a key factor why this weed is successful and occupies its niche
D. Reproduction
- Panicum species reproduce sexually
- Reproduction by seed
- Inflorescence are open, spreading, and large
E. Dispersal
- Seed heads shatter easily
- Seed heads can break off and tumble along the ground spreading seeds over a great distance
- Wind and water can easily move small, light, slick seeds
- Via contaminated crop seed
- Farm machinery ( cultivators, combines, etc. )
- Wildlife, especially migratory birds
F. Seedbank
- Large seedbanks can be established very quickly, especially in colonizing areas
- Due to small seed size and predation, seed doesn't have extremely long life in the seedbank
G. Dormancy
- Seed dormancy has been noticed in Panicum species, making a persistent component of the seedbank
- Probably is influenced by seasonal or induced dormancy
H. Pest and Diseases
- It is not a major host for any specific insect species
- Few diseases affect weedy Panicum species, minor ones are:
a. Ergots
b. Bacterial blights
Economics and Control
A. Economics
- Can reduce corn yields 30% to 50%
- Large infestations can be hard on machinery such as combines
B. Crops threatened by Panicum species
- Field Corn and Seed Corn
- Sweet Corn
- Soybeans
- Wheat
- Alfalfa
- Nurseries
- Garden Crops
- Sod areas
C. Cultural Control
- Use competitive crop cultivars
- Use clean, weed free crop seed
- Clean tillage equipment and combines when moving to a new site
- Use narrow row spacing
- Crop rotations
- Plant crops with vigorous early season growth to develop canopy
- Planting date
D. Chemical Control
- Pre-plant and Pre-emergence
a. EPTC
b. pendimethalin
c. alachlor
d. acetochlor
e. metolachor
f. cyanazine
g. benefin
- Many times the effectiveness of soil applied chemical will run out later in the season
- Post emergence
a. quizalofop
b. fenoxaprop-ethyl
c. fluazifop-P
d. sethoxydim
e. clethodim
f. haloxyfop
e. imazethapyr
- Good coverage by the spray may be hard to achieve due to crop canopy
Reasons for
Success and Benefits of Panicum Species
A. The Successful Niche
- Vigorous seedlings
- Late emergence - cultural and chemical control can easily miss this species
- Fast growth and maturity
- Tillers profusely
- Produces large numbers of seeds per plant
- Does well in hot dry weather
- Does well in less fertile and favorable sites
- Exhibits dormancy
B. Benefits of Panicum Species
- Food source for wildlife, especially birds
- Cultivated for bird seed
- Provides winter cover in many areas for animals
- Can be used as a poor forage if the need arises
Interesting Weed Links
http://extension.agron.iastate.edu/extweeds/mgmt/qtr2-98/emergencehotline.htm
http://www.rce.rutgers.edu/weeddocuments/index.htm
http://piked2.agn.uiuc.edu/wssa/subpages/weed/weedid.html
Bibliography of Panicum Species
Lowell Sandell
Agronomy 517: Weed Biology and Ecology
Spring 1998
4/16/98
Biology
Alex, J.F. and E.B. Pridham. 1975. Fall panicum in Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food Factsheet. 75-82, p. 4.
Andersen, W.P. 1977. Weed Science: Principles. West Publishing Company, New York. 598pp.
Bough, M.A., and P.B. Cavers. 1987. Proso millet. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food Factsheet, Order No. 87-025.
Bough, M.A., J.C. Colosi, and P.B. Cavers. 1986. The major weed biotypes of proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) in Canada. Can. J. Bot. 64: 1188-1198.
Brecke, J.J. and W. B. Duke. 1980. Dormancy, germination, and emergence characteristics of fall panicum (Panicum dichotomiflorum) seed. Weed Sci. 28 (6): 683-685
Carpenter, J.L. and H.J. Hopen. 1985. A comparison of the biology of wild and cultivated proso millet (Panicum miliaceum). Weed Science 33: 795-799
Cavers, P.B. and M. Kane. 1990. Responses of proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) seedlings to mechanical damage and/or drought treatments. Weed Technology. 4: 425-432.
Cavers, P.B. and M.A. Bough. 1986. Proso millet - A crop and a weed. In studies on plant demography: John L. Harper Festschrift. Ed. J. White. Academic Press, New York. Pp. 143-155.
Clements, F.E., J.E. Weaver, and H.C. Hanson. 1929. Plant competition -- an analysis of community function. Publ. No. 398. Carnegie Institute, Washington, D.C. 340pp.
Coultas, J. and R. Behrens. 1983. Growth characteristics of wild proso millet (Panicum Miliaceum L.) in Minnesota. Proceedings of the North Central Weed Control Conference 38:37.
Coultas, J. 1986. Growth and development of wild proso millet in three cropping systems and natural infestations. PHD Thesis, Univ. Minnesota. 113pp.
Crane, S. and R.D. Ilnicki. Fall panicum competition in conventional and no-till corn. Proc. Northeast Weed Sci. Soc. p.22.
Cranet S. 1988. Relationship in the growth of fall panicum (Panicum dichotoflorum Michx.) with and without the presence of field corn (Zea mays L.): A competitive study. PHD dissertation. pp 61.
Dekker, J.H., R.D. McLaren, J.J. O'Toole, and J.C. Colosi. 1981. Proso millet. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food Factsheet. May 1981.
Doersch. R. 1987. Pall panicum: A native American. Crops and Soils Magazine. 39 (7): 10-11.
Donald, C.M. 1963. Competition among crop and pasture plants. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press, New York. 15: 1-118.
Eberlein, C.V., E.L. Lurvey, T.L. Miller, and J.L. Micheal. 1990. Growth and development of wild proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) biotypes. Weed Technology. 4: 415-419.
Fisher, H., and R.G. Harvey. 1983. Differences in germination and rooting characteristics among annual grasses. Proc. North Cent. Weed Control Conf. 38: 40.
Govinthasamy, T. and P.B. Cavers. 1995. The effects of smut on seed production, dormancy, and viability in fall panicum. Can. J. Bot. 73 (10): 1628-1634.
Grimes, J.P. and R. Hunt. 1975. Relative growth-rate: Its range and adaptive significance i,a local flora. J. Ecol. 63: 393.
Harlan, J.R. 1965. The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivated plants. Euphytica 14: 173-176.
Harper, J.L. 1977. Population biology of plants. Academic Press Inc. New York. 892pp.
Harvey, R.G. 1979. Serious weed threat: wild proso millet. Crops and Soils 31: 10-13.
Harvey, R.G., and L.K. Binning. 1984. Importance of mourning doves in the spread of wild proso millet. Proc. North Central Weed Control Conf. 29-30.
Harvey, R.G. 1989. Lessons learned from 15 years of wild proso millet research. Weed Sci. 29: 141.
Harris, T.C. and R.L. Ritter. 1987. Giant green foxtail (Setaria viridis var. major) and fall panicum (Panicum dichotomiflorum) competition in soybeans (Glycine max). Weed Sci 35: 663-668.
Hinze, G. 1972. Millets in Colorado. Colo. State Univ. Exp. Stn. Bull. 5535.
Hitchock, A.S. 1950. Manual of the grasses of the United States. 2nd Ed. United States Dep. Agric. Misc. Publ. No. 200. 1051pp.
Houghton, J.M. and F.W. Slife. 1972. Environmental factors that affect the development and control of panicum species. Proc. North Central Weed Control Conf. 24: 82.
Hoveland, C.S. and G.A. Buchanan. 1972. Flooding tolerance of fall panicum and Texas panicum. Weed Sci. 20 (2): 1-3.
Hurst, S.J. 1981. Wild proso millet - A serious new weed. Newsl. Assoc. Off. Seed Anal. 55 (3): 51-54.
Karssen, C.M. 1982. Seasonal patterns of dormancy in weed seeds. The physiology and biochemistry of seed development, dormancy and germination. Kahan A.A. ed., Elsevier, New York, Chap 10.
Kato, Y., H. Iwata, M. Imagawa, K. Mori, T. Kato. 1983. Studies on nutrients absorption of tropical grass and its chemical components as feed. Fertilizer rate, ground water levels and cutting frequency for fall panicum. Res-Bull-Aichi-Ken-Agric-Res-Cent. (15): 131-137.
Liebman, M. and M.A. Alteri. 1988. Weed management in agroecosystems: ecological approaches. CBC Press. Inc.
Luellen. W.R. 1982. Wild proso millet - will you recognize it before it is too late? Crops and Soils. May 34: 9-11.
Maguire, J.D. 1962. Speed of germination - aid in selection and evaluation for seedling emergence and vigor. Crop Sci. 2: 176-177.
McCanny, S.J., Bough, M., and P.B. Cavers. 1988. Spread of proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) in Ontario, Canada I. Rate of spread and crop susceptibility. Weed Research Oxford. Blackwell Scientific Publications 28 (2): 59-65.
McCanny, S.J., and P.B. Cavers. 1983. The dispersal of proso millet by farm machinery. Annual Meeting Weed Science Society of America. p. 67.
Miller, S.D. 1987. Wild proso millet control in corn. Proc. Western Soc. Weed Science, 40: 140.
Moore, D.R.J. and P.B. Cavers. 1985. A comparison of seedling vigour in crop and weed biotypes of proso millet (Panicum miliaceum). Canadian Journal of Botany 63: 1695-1663.
Murata, T., R. Ohsugi, N. Shimizu. 1983. Effect of low soil temperature on the growth of fall panicum and barnyardgrass. Sochi-Shikenjo-Kenkyu-Hokoku-Bull-Natl-Grassl-Res-Inst. (24): 31-40.
Nanda, K.K. 1985. Effect of photoperiod on stem elongation and lateral bud development in Panicum miliaceum and its correlation with flowering. Phyton 10 (1): 7-16.
Oestry, L., and J.M.J. DeWet. 1981. Seed proteins and systematics of cultivated weed and wild forms of Panicum miliaceum. Am. J. Bor. 160: 76.
Ohta, K., and M. Ochi. 1981. A comparison of some characteristics of 9 locally naturalized fall panicum cultivars from Japan. Nippon-Sochi-Gakkai-Shi-J-Jap-Soc-Grassl-Sci. Tochigi. 27 (2): 248-249.
Parochetti, J.V. 1970. The ten worst weeds of field crops, Panicums. Crops and Soils Magazine/ Aug-Sept.
Parochette, J.V. 1970. Fall Panicum. Crops and Soils. 20 (9): 12-13.
Patterson, D.T., A.E. Russel, C.A. Mortensen, R.D. Coffin, and E.P. Flint. 1986. Effects of temperature and photoperiod on Texas Panicum (Panicum Texacum) and wild proso millet (Panicum miliaceum). Weed Science 34: 876-882.
Rachie, K.O. 1975. The Millets. Importance, utilization and outlook. Int. Crops Res. Inst. Semi-arid Tropics, Hyderabad, India.
Radosevich, S.R. and M.L. Roush. 1990. The role of competition in agriculture. Perspective on Plant Competition. Academic Press, Inc. pp. 341-362.
Ritter, R.L. and W.M. Lewis. 1977. Fall panicum interference in corn. Proc. Southern Weed Science Soc. 30: 56.
Selleck, G.W. 1980. Fall panicum: weed on the increase. Weeds Today. 11 (2): 15.
Strand, O.E., and R. Beherens. 1979. Identification of wild proso millet. Agron. Fact Sheet No. 35, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
Strand, O.E., R. Behren, and G.R. Miller. 1973. Wild proso millet, a new weed problem in Minnesota. Proc. North Central Weed Control Conf. 28: 51-52.
Strand, O.E., and R. Behrens. 1981. Identification and control of wild proso millet. Univ. Minn. Ext. Bull. 1420.
Stubbendieck, J., F.R. Friisoe, M.R. Bolick. 1994. Weeds of Nebraska and the Great Plains. Nebraska Dept. of Agriculture. pp.438-443.
Taylorson, R.B. 1972. Phytochrome controlled changes in dormancy and germination of buried weed seeds. Weed Science 20 (5): 417-422.
Taylorson, R.B. 1989. Responses of redroot pigweed and witchgrass seeds to anesthetics. Weed Science Society of America. 37 (1): 93-97.
Thompson, B.K., J. Weiner, S.I. Warwick. 1991. Size-dependant reproductive output in agricultural weeds. Can. J. Bot. 69 (3): 442-446.
Vengris, J. 1973. Growth and development of fall panicum and witchgrass in Massachusetts. Proc. Northeast Weed Control Conf. 27: 167.
Vengris, J. and R.A. Damon, Jr. 1976. Field growth of fall panicum and witchgrass. Weed Science 24 (2): 205-208.
Warwick, S.I. 1987. Isozyme variation in proso millet. J. of Heredity 78: 210-212.
Warwick, S.I., and B.K. Thompson. 1987. Differential response to competition in weedy biotypes of proso millet. Can. J. Bot. 65: 1403-1409.
Westra, P. 1990. Wild proso millet. Weed Technology. 4: 407-408.
Westra, P., R.L. Zimdahl, and R. Wilson. 1989. Biology and control of wild proso millet. Seed Sci. Soc. Am. 29: 139-140.
Wicks, G.A., G.W. Mahnken, and G.E. Hanson. 1995. Influence of small grain crops on weeds and ecofallow corn (Zea mays). Weed Science Society of America. 43 (1): 128-133.
Wilson, R.G. 1983. Wild proso millet. NebGuide G83-648, A-21. Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska - Lincoln.
York, A.C. and W.M. Lewis. 1976. Today's weed, fall panicum. Weeds Today 8:18.
York, A.C. and H.D. Coble. 1977. Fall panicum interference in peanuts. Weed Sci. 25 (1): 43-47.
Zimdahl, R.L. 1980. Weed-crop competition -- a review. International Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University. 197pp.
Anonymous. 1972. Canada, panicum in Ontario. Weeds Today 3 (3): 16
Anonymous. 1981. Fall panicum emerges as serious problem. Eliminating early weeds reduces competition in Iowa. Agrichem-Age. 25 (1): 26-27.
Weeds of the North Central States. North Central Regional Research Publication No. 281. 1992. pp. 32-33.
Emergence
& Germination
Alex, J.F. 1980. Emergence from buried seed and germination of exhumed seed of fall panicum. Can. J. Plant Sci. 60: 635-642.
Barrett, M., and R.A. Peter. 1976. Germination of corn, lambsquarters, and fall panicum under simulated drought. Proc. Annual Meetings of the Northeast Weed Sci. Soc. 30: 98-103.
Baskin, J.M. and C.C. Baskin. 1983. Seasonal changes in the germination responses of fall panicum to temperature and light. Can. J. Plant Sci. 63: 1023-1030.
Baskin, J.M. and C.C. Baskin. 1985. Seasonal changes in the germination responses of buried withchgrass seeds. Weed Sci. 34: 22-24.
Striegel, W.L., and P.F. Boldt. 1981. Germination and emergence characteristics of wild proso millet. Proc. North Central Weed Control Conf. 36: 22.
Stump, W. 1984. Germination, emergence, and seed persistence of Panicum miliaceum L. M.S. Dissertation, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO. 139pp.
Seedbank
& Dormancy
Cardian, J., E. Regnier, and K. Harrison. 1991. Long-term tillage effects of seed banks in three Ohio soils. Weed Sci. 39 (2): 186-194.
Cavers, P.B., M. Kane, J.J. O'Toole. 1992. Importance of seedbanks for establishment of newly introduced weeds -- a case study of proso millet. Weed Sci. 40 (4): 630-635.
Colosi, J.C., P.B. Cavers, and M.A. Bough. 1988. Dormancy and survival in buried seeds of proso millet. Weed Sci. 33: 795-799.
O'Toole, J.J. and P.B. Cavers. 1983. Input to seedbank of proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) in Southern Ontario. Can. J. Plant Sci. 63: 1023-1030.
O'Toole, J.J. 1982. Seedbanks of Panicum miliaceum L. in three drops. M.S. thesis, Univ. Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
Taylorson, R.B. 1980. Aspects of seed dormancy in fall panicum. Weed Sci. 28 (1): 64-67.
Taylorson, R.B. 1979. Control of fall panicum seed dormancy by light. Proc. Annual Meetings of the Northeast Weed Sci. Soc. 33: 330.
Control
& Economics
Bandal, V.A., A.W. Bell, and J.V. Parochetti. 1975. Control of fall panicum in conventional and no tillage corn with two triazines as influenced by nitrogen fertilizer sources. Proc. Northeast Weed Sci. Soc. 29: 96.
Barret, L.H., and J.A. Jagschitz. 1976. Control of crabgrass and fall panicum in turfgrass with post emergence herbicides. Proc. Northeast Weed Sci. Soc. 30: 372-376.
Burt, G.W., and J.V. Parochetti. 1976. Paraquat and glyphosate activity on fall panicum and corn. Proc. Northeast Weed Sci. Soc. 30: 35-39.
Cavers, P.B. 1985. Intractable weeds - intraspecific variation must be considered in formulation control measures. Proc. 1985 Brit. Crop Protection Conf. Weeds. 1: 367-376.
Chandler, J.M. and P.W. Santelman. Growth characteristics and herbicide susceptibility of Texas panicum. Weed Science. 17: 91-93.
Curtis, D., W.S. Braunworth, D. McGrath, and G. Crabtree. 1989. Wild proso millet control in sweet corn in Wilmamette Valley. Proc. Western Society of Weed Science. 42: 250-252.
Doersch, R.E., H.L. Fischer, R.G. Harvey. 1987. Wild proso millet control in field crops. North Central Reg. Ext. Publ. Mich. State Univ. Coop. Ext. Serv. (265) 4p.
Fawcett, J.A. and R.G. Harvey. 1988. Proso millet control in corn with post emergence directed herbicides. Weed Science. 36 (2): 215-220.
Fletchall, O.H. 1978. Control of fall panicum in corn. Proc. Northeast Weed Sci. Soc. 33: 83-84.
Hartwig, N.L. 1975. Fall panicum control in no tillage corn. Proc. Northeast Weed Sci. Soc. 29: 90-93.
Harvey, R.G., and D.J. Porter. 1990. Wild proso millet control in soybeans with post emergence herbicide. Weed Technology. 4: 420-424.
Harvey, R.G., and R.E. Doersch. 1974. Triazine susceptibility of fall panicum and small crabgrass. Agron. J. 66 (2): 267-270.
Harvey, R.G., G.R. McNevin, J.W. Alabright, and M.E. Kozak. 1986. Wild proso millet control with thiocarbamate herbicides on previously treated soils. Weed Science. 34: 773-780.
Jagschitz, J.A. 1980. Control of fall panicum and nutsedge in Kentucky bluegrass with post emergence herbicides. Proc. Northeast Weed Sci. Soc. 34: 368-371.
Kern, A.D. and W.F. Meggitt. 1972. Fall panicum control in corn with post emergence herbicide treatments. Proc. North Central Weed Control Conf. 24:20.
Kern, A.D., W.F. Meggett, and D. Penner. 1975. Uptake, movement, and metabolism of cyanazine in fall panicum, green foxtail, and corn. Weed Science. 23 (4): 277-282.
Kern, A.D., W.F. Meggitt, and D. Penner. 1975. Influence of stage of growth and adjuvants on fall panicum control in corn with cyanazine. Weed Science. 23 (3): 241-245.
Kern, A.D., W.F. Meggitt, and D. Penner. 1976. Cyanazine metabolism in corn, fall panicum and green foxtail. Weed Research. 16 (2): 119-124.
Knake, E.L. 1962. Losses caused by weeds. Proc. North Central Weed Control Conf. 19:1.
McNavin G.R., and R.G. Harvey. 1980. Wild proso millet control in field corn. North Central Weed Control Conference Research Report. 37: 266-267.
McNavin, G.R., and R.G. Harvey. 1980. Wild proso millet control in sweet corn. North Central Weed Control Conference Research Report. 37:5.
McNavin, G.R., and R.G. Harvey. 1980. Wild proso millet control in sod-planted corn. North Central Weed Control Conference Research Report. 37: 263.
McNavin, G.R., and R.G. Harvey. 1982. Wild proso millet control in processing peas and soybeans. Weed Science. 30: 365-368.
Miller, S.D. 1986. Evaluation of post emergence grass herbicides for wild proso millet in alfalfa. Res. Prog. Rep. West. Soc Weed Science. Weed Science. p. 121.
Miller, S.D. and R. Shoemaker. 1986. Wild proso millet control in corn. Res. Prog. Rep. Western Weed Sci. Soc. Weed Science. p. 129.
Parachetti, J.V., and T.C. Harris. 1980. Multiple herbicide combination for fall panicum control in no tillage corn. Proc. Northeast Weed Sci. Soc. 34: 59-67.
Parochetti, J.V. 1979. Combination of three residual herbicides for fall panicum control in no tillage corn. Proc. Northeast Weed Sci. Soc. 33: 4.
Perera. L.A. and N.L. Hartwig. 1980. Competitive control of fall panicum and giant foxtail by field corn. Proc. Northeast Weed Sci. Soc. 34: 38-42.
Robinson, D.E., and D.W. Greene. 1976. Metabolism and differential susceptibility of crabgrass and witchgrass in Massachusetts. Weed Sci. 24 (5): 500-504.
Robocker, W.C., C.L. Canode. 1977. Control of witchgrass in fields of seedling Kentucky bluegrass. Agron. J. 69 (3): 455-457.
Shenk, M.D., W.S. Braunworth, R.J. Fernandez, D.W. Curtis, D. McGrath, and R.D. William. 1990. Wild proso millet control in sweet corn. Weed Technol. 4 (2):440-445.
Sollazzo, P.J., and R.D. Ilnicki. Competitive effects of fall panicum on soybeans herbicide alachlor. Proc. Northeast Weed Sci. Soc. p.59.
Stephensen, G.R., M.D. Dybstra, R.D. McLaren, A.S. Hamill. 1990/ Agronomic practices influencing triazine resistant weed distribution in Ontario. Weed Technol. 4: 199-207.
Swanton, C.J. and K. Chandler. 1990. Control of wild proso millet with imazathepyr. Weed Technol. 4: 446-449.
Thompson, L. Jr. 1972. Metabolism of chloro-s-triazine herbicides by panicum and setaria. Weed Science. 20: 584-587.
Thompson, L., J.M. Houghton, F.W. Slife, and H.S. Butler. 1971. Metabolism of atrazine by fall panicum and large crabgrass. Weed Science. 19 (4): 409-412.
Warns. D.D., R. Behrens, and M.A. Elakkad. 1980. Wild proso millet control with repeated annual thiocrbamate treatments. North Central Weed Con. Conf. Res. Rep. 37: 216-217.
Westra, P., and K.G. Beck. 1987. 1987 Herbicide evaluation in Colorado. Res. Ext. Weed Science, Plant Path./Weed Science. Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins, CO. 80523.
Westra, P., and R.L. Zimdahl. 1987. Control of wild proso millet and venice mallow in corn. Proc. Western Soc. Weed Science. 41: 148.
Westra, P., R.G. Wilson, and R.L. Zimdahl. 1990. Wild proso millet control in cetral plains irrigated corn. Weed Tech. 4: 409-414.
